Introduction
- The first approach to the formal study of personality was psychoanalysis, which was developed by Sigmund Freud in the late nineteenth century. Freud’s formulations were so influential and far-reaching that many of his ideas and his unique approach to psychotherapy are still in use today. Freud’s conception of psychoanalysis emphasized unconscious forces, biologically based drives of sex and aggression, and unavoidable conflicts in childhood. These were thought to be the rulers and shapers of our personalities. Freud’s ideas influenced not only psychology but also popular culture. He was successful in redefining the human personality and revolutionizing our understanding of human nature.
Sigmund Freud
- Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was the founder of psychoanalysis, a method for treating mental illness as well as a theory that explains people’s behavior. He greatly influenced personality theory. His psychoanalytic system was the first formal theory of personality and is still the most well-known. Despite its controversial nature, Freud’s influence has been so profound that more than a century after his theory was proposed, it remains the framework for the study of personality. Freud’s work not only influenced thinking about personality in psychology and psychiatry, but it also had a significant impact on our understanding of human nature.
Instincts
Instincts are the fundamental components of personality, the motivating forces that drive and direct behavior. Instincts are a type of energy—transformed physiological energy—that connects the needs of the body with the desires of the mind. A hungry person, for example, will seek food to satisfy his or her hunger. The instinct is not a physical state; rather, it is a physical need transformed into a mental state, a wish.
Freud believed that we always have some level of instinctual tension and that we must constantly work to reduce it. We cannot escape the pressures of our physiological needs any more than we can escape the pressures of our external environment. This means that instincts are constantly influencing our behavior, in a cycle of need leading to need reduction.
Types Of Instincts:-
Freud classified instincts into two types: life instincts and death instincts. Life instincts seek to satisfy the needs for food, water, air, and sex in order to ensure the individual’s and species’ survival. The instincts of life are geared toward growth and development. The libido is the psychic energy manifested by life instincts. The libido can be attached to or invested in objects, which Freud referred to as cathexis.
In contrast to life instincts, Freud proposed destructive or death instincts. Drawing on biology, he stated the obvious fact that all living things decay and die, returning to their original inanimate state, and he proposed that people have an unconscious desire to die. The aggressive drive, defined as the desire to die turned against objects other than oneself, is one component of death instincts. The aggressive drive drives us to destroy, conquer, and kill. Freud came to regard aggression as compelling a part of human nature as sex.
Levels Of Personality
- In Freud’s original theory, personality was divided into three levels: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Because only a small portion of our thoughts, sensations, and memories exist in conscious awareness at any given time, Freud considered the conscious to be a limited aspect of personality. He used an iceberg analogy to describe the human mind. The conscious is the portion of the iceberg that is above the surface of the water. the unconscious, the larger, unseen portion beneath the surface This is the central theme of psychoanalytic theory. Its vast, dark depths are home to instincts, the wishes, and desires that guide our actions. The unconscious is the repository of forces we cannot see or control, and it contains the major driving force behind all behaviors. The preconscious level exists between these two levels. This is the repository of memories, perceptions, and thoughts that we are not consciously aware of at the time but can easily recall.
Structure Of Personality
- Later, Freud revised this notion of three levels of personality and introduced three basic structures in personality anatomy: the id, the ego, and the superego.
1. ID:-
The id corresponds to Freud’s earlier concept of the unconscious (although the ego and superego have unconscious aspects as well). The id is the reservoir for instincts and libido (the psychic energy manifested by the instincts). The id is a powerful personality structure because it provides all of the energy for the other two components. Because the id is the reservoir of instincts, it is inextricably linked to the satisfaction of bodily needs.
The id operates according to Freud’s pleasure principle; by being concerned with tension reduction, the id functions to increase pleasure and avoid pain. The id seeks immediate satisfaction of its needs and will not tolerate any delay or postponement of satisfaction. It only knows instant gratification; it drives us to want what we want when we want it, regardless of what others want. The id is a primitive, amoral, insistent, and rash structure that seeks selfish pleasure. The id is completely unaware of reality. The id can only try to satisfy its needs through reflex action and wish-fulfilling hallucinatory or fantasy experience, which Freud referred to as primary-process thought.
2. Ego:-
The ego, Freud’s second personality structure, is the personality’s rational master. Its goal is not to nullify the id impulse, but to assist the id in obtaining the tension reduction it craves. Because it is aware of reality, the ego determines when and how the id’s instincts can be best satisfied. It chooses appropriate and socially acceptable times, places, and objects to satisfy the id impulses.
The ego does not prevent id fulfillment. Rather, it attempts to postpone, delay, or redirect it in response to reality’s demands. It perceives and manipulates the environment in a practical and realistic manner, and thus follows the reality principle. The ego is never free of the id. It is always responsive to the demands of the id and derives its power and energy from it.
3. Superego:-
- There is a third set of forces that we acquire in childhood—a powerful and largely unconscious set of dictates or beliefs. These are our ideas of right and wrong. In common parlance, we call this internal morality a conscience. Freud referred to it as the superego. The foundation of this moral side of the personality is usually learned by the age of 5 or 6 and initially consists of the rules of conduct established by our parents. Children learn which behaviours their parents consider good or bad through praise, punishment, and example. The conscience, one part of the superego, is formed by the behaviours for which children are punished. The ego-ideal is the second component of the superego, and it consists of good, or correct, behaviors for which children have been praised. The superego, as moral arbiter, is relentless, even cruel, in its pursuit of moral perfection. It is similar to the id in terms of intensity, irrationality, and insistence on obedience. Its goal is not simply to postpone the pleasure-seeking id’s demands, as the ego does, but to completely inhibit them, particularly those involving sex and aggression.
Anxiety And Its Types
- Freud described anxiety as an objectless fear; often, we cannot point to its source, to a specific object that induced it. Freud made anxiety an important part of his personality theory, asserting that it is fundamental to the development of neurotic and psychotic behavior. He proposed that birth trauma is the forerunner of all anxiety, which was expanded on by a disciple, Otto Rank.
Three Types Of Anxiety:-
1. Objective anxiety:-
The first type of anxiety is reality or objective anxiety, from which the others are derived. This involves apprehension about real-world dangers. Most of us understandably fear fires, hurricanes, earthquakes, and other natural disasters. We flee from rabid animals, speeding cars, and burning structures. Reality anxiety has the positive effect of directing our behavior to escape or protect ourselves from actual dangers. When the threat is no longer present, our fear fades.
2. Neurotic anxiety:-
Other types of anxiety, such as neurotic anxiety and moral anxiety, are more persistently detrimental to our mental health. The origins of neurotic anxiety can be traced back to childhood when there was a conflict between instinctual gratification and reality. Children are frequently punished for openly expressing sexual or aggressive desires. As a result, the desire to satisfy certain id impulses causes anxiety. This neurotic anxiety is an unconscious fear of being punished for displaying id-dominated behavior impulsively. The conflict shifts to one between the id and the ego, with some basis.
3. Moral anxiety:-
A conflict between the id and the superego causes moral anxiety. It boils down to a fear of one’s conscience. When you are motivated to act on an instinctual impulse that goes against your moral code, your superego retaliates by making you feel ashamed or guilty. You might describe yourself as conscience-stricken in everyday terms. Moral anxiety is proportional to the level of development of the superego. A person who has a strong inhibiting conscience will have more conflict than someone who has a less stringent set of moral guidelines.
Defence Mechanisms
- Freud proposed several defence mechanisms and observed that we rarely use just one; instead, we typically defend ourselves against anxiety by employing several at once. Although the specifics of defence mechanisms vary, they all share two characteristics: (1) they are denials or distortions of reality, and (2) they operate unconsciously. We are unaware of them, which means that we have distorted or unreal images of our world and ourselves on a conscious level. These are some of the defence mechanisms:
1. Repression
The involuntary removal of something from conscious awareness is referred to as repression. It is the most basic and frequently used defence mechanism, consisting of an unconscious forgetting of the existence of something that causes us discomfort or pain.
2. Denial
Denial is a repressive defence mechanism that involves denying the existence of some external threat or traumatic event that has occurred. A person suffering from a terminal illness, for example, may deny the impending death.
3. Reaction Formation
Reaction Formation actively expressing the opposite impulse is one way to counteract a disturbing impulse. This is referred to as reaction formation. A person who is strongly motivated by threatening sexual impulses may suppress those impulses and substitute more socially acceptable behaviours.
4. Projection
Another strategy for dealing with disturbing impulses is to blame them on someone else. This type of defence mechanism is known as projection. Lustful, aggressive, and other undesirable impulses are perceived to be possessed by others rather than by oneself.
5. Regression
Regression occurs when a person retreats or regresses to a more pleasant and anxiety-free period of their life. Regression typically entails returning to one of the psychosexual stages of childhood development. The individual returns to a more secure time in his or her life by displaying behaviours that were prevalent at the time, such as childish and dependent behaviour.
6. Rationalisation
Rationalization is a defence mechanism in which we reinterpret our behaviour in order to make it appear more rational and acceptable to us. We exculpate a threatening thought or action by convincing ourselves that there is a plausible explanation for it.
7. Displacement
If an object satisfying an id impulse is unavailable, the person may redirect the impulse to another object. This is referred to as displacement. The original object of the aggressive impulse has been replaced by a non-threatening object. However, the substitute object will not alleviate tension as well as the original object. When you are involved in a number of displacements, a reservoir of undischarged tension builds up, and you are compelled to find new ways to reduce that tension
8. Sublimation
Sublimation, as opposed to displacement, involves changing the id impulses. The instinctual energy is channelled into other forms of expression that society considers acceptable and admirable. It does not provide complete satisfaction, but rather accumulates unreleased tension.
Psychosexual Stages Of Personality Development
- Each stage of psychosexual development is defined by an erogenous zone of the body, according to the theory of psychosexual stages of development. Each developmental stage contains a conflict that must be resolved before the infant or child can advance to the next stage. These are the stages:
1. Oral Stage
The oral stage, the first stage of psychosexual development, lasts from birth to the second year of life. The mouth is the infant’s primary source of pleasure during this time. Sucking, biting, and swallowing give the infant pleasure. Of course, the mouth is used for survival (eating and drinking), but Freud placed a greater emphasis on the erotic pleasures derived from oral activities.
2. Anal Stage
Freud believed that the experience of toilet training during the anal stage had a significant effect on personality development around the age of 18 months. Defecation gives the child erotic pleasure, but with the start of toilet training, the child must learn to postpone or delay this pleasure. Parents attempt to regulate the time and place for defecation for the first time, interfering with the gratification of an instinctual impulse.
3. Phallic Stage
When the focus of pleasure shifts from the anus to the genitals around the fourth to the fifth year, a new set of problems emerges. Again, the child must choose between an id impulse and societal demands, as reflected in parental expectations. Children in the phallic stage are very interested in exploring and manipulating their own and their playmates’ genitals. Pleasure is derived not only from the genital region through behaviours such as masturbation but also through fantasies. The child becomes interested in birth and why boys have penises while girls do not. The child may express a desire to marry the parent of the opposite sex.
4. Oedipus Complex
The basic conflict of the phallic stage revolves around the child’s unconscious desire for the parent of the opposite sex. This is accompanied by an unconscious desire to replace or destroy the parent of the same sex. One of Freud’s most well-known concepts arose from his identification of this conflict: the Oedipus complex. It takes its name from the Greek myth described in Sophocles’ fifth-century B.C. play, Oedipus Rex. In this story, Oedipus, a young man, murders his father and marries his mother without knowing who they are.
5. Electra Complex
Freud was less clear about the female phallic conflict, which some of his followers referred to as the Electra complex. The mother, like the boy, is the girl’s first object of love because she is the primary source of food, affection, and security in infancy. However, during the phallic stage, the father becomes the girl’s new love object.
6. Latency Stage
The storms and stresses of psychosexual development’s oral, anal, and phallic stages form the foundation of most of the adult personality. By the age of 5, the three major structures of the personality—the id, ego, and superego—had formed and their relationships were solidifying.
Fortunately, because both the child and parents could use some rest, the next 5 or 6 years are relatively quiet. The sex instinct is dormant, temporarily suppressed by school activities, hobbies, sports, and friendships with people of the same sex.
7. Genital Stage
Puberty marks the start of the genital stage, the final psychosexual stage of development. The body is maturing physiologically, and if no major fixations occurred earlier in development, the person may be able to live a normal life. Freud believed that the conflict was less intense during this stage than in the others. Sublimation allows the adolescent to avoid conflict by conforming to societal sanctions and taboos regarding sexual expression.
Top 13 Facts About Psychoanalytical Approach
Freud’s theories laid the groundwork for a school of psychology that rose quickly to become a dominant force in the early years of the science of the mind and behaviour, i.e., the Psychoanalytic approach.
The basic premise of psychoanalysis is that, in addition to inherited personality, events in early childhood and unconscious irrational drives influence a person’s development.
Sometimes people are unable to explain why they are feeling or acting the way they do. In psychodynamic theory, what causes feelings and actions is referred to as the unconscious mind.
Freudian psychoanalysis is a type of treatment in which the subject (analytic patient) talks about his or her experiences, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams. The analyst deduces the unconscious conflicts that cause the patient’s symptoms and character flaws from these.
It gave rise to psychoanalysis, one of the first “talking cures,” on which many psychological therapies are now based.
Psychoanalysis has been criticised on numerous fronts. It has been labelled a pseudoscience and lacks empirical support.
The psychodynamic approach places too much emphasis on psychological factors while ignoring biological/genetic factors that influence and contribute to mental health problems.
Freud believed that slips of the tongue provided insight into the unconscious mind, that there were no accidents, and that every behaviour (including slips of the tongue) was significant.
Parts of the unconscious mind (the id and superego) are constantly at odds with the conscious mind (the ego). This conflict causes anxiety, which the ego can deal with by employing defence mechanisms.
It could be argued that Freud was the first to emphasise the importance of childhood in mental health, and this idea is still widely used today.
The psychodynamic approach is strongly determinist because it believes that our behaviour is entirely determined by unconscious factors over which we have no control.
The psychodynamic approach acknowledges the influence of social factors, arguing that we are driven by innate biological instincts, represented by the Id (nature), but how these instincts are expressed is influenced by our social and cultural environment (nurture).
Freud’s first major work, The Interpretation of Dreams, was published in 1900, establishing the importance of the psychoanalytical movement.